essay about information processing

Information Processing Theory In Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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At the very heart of cognitive psychology is the idea of information processing.

Cognitive psychology sees the individual as a processor of information, in much the same way that a computer takes in information and follows a program to produce an output.

Basic Assumptions

The information processing approach is based on several assumptions, including:

• Information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g., attention, perception, short-term memory);
• These processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways;
• The research aims to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance;
• Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

Computer-Mind Analogy

The development of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s had an important influence on psychology. It was, in part, responsible for the cognitive approach becoming the dominant approach in modern psychology (taking over from Behaviorism).

The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to which they could compare human mental processing. The use of the computer as a tool for thinking about how the human mind handles information is known as the computer analogy.

Essentially, a computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses information and produces an output (retrieves info).

The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.

For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural activity, which is fed back to the brain where it is “stored” and “coded.”

This information can be used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory, perception, and attention. The output (i.e., behavior) might be, for example, to read what you can see on a printed page.

Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the environment providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses.

The information can be stored, retrieved, and transformed using “mental programs,” with the results being behavioral responses.

Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of study to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence (AI).

Information Processing Model of Memory

When we selectively attend to one activity, we tend to ignore other stimulation. However, our attention can be distracted by something else, like the telephone ringing or someone using our name.

Psychologists are interested in what makes us attend to one thing rather than another ( selective attention ), why we sometimes switch our attention to something that was previously unattended (e.g., Cocktail Party Syndrome), and how many things we can attend to at the same time (attentional capacity).

One way of conceptualizing attention is to think of humans as information processors who can only process a limited amount of information at a time without becoming overloaded.

Broadbent and others in the 1950s adopted a model of the brain as a limited capacity information processing system through which external input is transmitted.

The information processing model of memory consists of a series of stages, or boxes, representing stages of processing. Arrows indicate the flow of information from one stage to the next.

• Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli.
• Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli.
• Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus.

Critical Evaluation

A number of models of attention within the Information Processing framework have been proposed, including:

Broadbent’s Filter Model (1958), Treisman’s Attenuation Model (1964), and Deutsch and Deutsch’s Late Selection Model (1963).

However, there are a number of evaluative points to bear in mind when studying these models and the information processing approach in general. These include:

1. The information processing models assume serial processing of stimulus inputs.

• Serial processing effectively means one process has to be completed before the next starts.
• Parallel processing assumes some or all processes involved in a cognitive task(s) occur at the same time.

There is evidence from dual-task experiments that parallel processing is possible. It is difficult to determine whether a particular task is processed in a serial or parallel fashion as it probably depends (a) on the processes required to solve a task and (b) the amount of practice on a task.

Parallel processing is probably more frequent when someone is highly skilled; for example, a skilled typist thinks several letters ahead, while a novice focuses on just one letter at a time.

2. The analogy between human cognition and computer functioning adopted by the information processing approach is limited.

Computers can be regarded as information processing systems insofar as they:

• Combine information presented with the stored information to provide solutions to a variety of problems, and
• Most computers have a central processor of limited capacity, and it is usually assumed that capacity limitations affect the human attentional system.

BUT –

• The human brain has the capacity for extensive parallel processing, and computers often rely on serial processing;
• Humans are influenced in their cognitions by a number of conflicting emotional and motivational factors.

3. The evidence for the theories/models of attention that come under the information processing approach is largely based on experiments under controlled, scientific conditions.

Most laboratory studies are artificial and could be said to lack ecological validity.

In everyday life, cognitive processes are often linked to a goal (e.g., you pay attention in class because you want to pass the examination), whereas in the laboratory, the experiments are carried out in isolation from other cognitive and motivational factors.

Although these laboratory experiments are easy to interpret, the data may not apply to the real world outside the laboratory. More recently, ecologically valid approaches to cognition have been proposed (e.g., the Perceptual Cycle, Neisser, 1976).

Attention has been studied largely in isolation from other cognitive processes, although clearly, it operates as an interdependent system with the related cognitive processes of perception and memory.

The more successful we become at examining part of the cognitive system in isolation, the less our data are likely to tell us about cognition in everyday life.

4. Although it is agreed that stimulus-driven (bottom-up) information in cognition is important, what the individual brings to the task regarding expectations/past experiences is also important.

These influences are known as “top-down” or “conceptually-driven” processes. For example, read the triangle below:

Expectation ( top-down processing ) often overrides information actually available in the stimulus ( bottom-up ), which we are, supposedly, attending to. How did you read the text in the triangle above?

Broadbent, D. (1958). Perception and Communication. London: Pergamon Press.

Deutsch, J. A., & Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention: Some Theoretical Considerations. Psychological Review , 70, 80–90

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Treisman, A. (1964). Selective attention in man. British Medical Bulletin , 20, 12-16.

Further information

• Why Your Brain is Not a Computer
• BBC Radio: Donald Broadbent and the Cocktail Party.
• Attention Journal Article
• Attention Essay

Information Processing Theory Term Paper

Introduction, contrustivism, critical thinking, use of constructivism, problem solving and critical thinking in school.

The information processing theory approach is the study involving cognitive development in psychology. Developmental psychologists who recognize and use the information processing perspective note that mental maturity is as a result of the child’s basic components changing (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

This equates the human mind to a computer whereby the information processed is from the environment that enters the mind through the attention mechanisms. Thus, the theory of the mechanism of the human brain relates and addresses the growth of the child’s mind. This is with respect to the processing of information in an advanced manner, as well as responses to the information received. This theory emphasizes the continuous pattern of development.

In the model where human beings are viewed as computers, the comparison of the two is used to comprehend the manner in which the information is handled by individuals. In the model, information is taken in or simply it is input. Then, it is encoded through the processing system to give a meaning that is compared to the stored information. A good example is the central processing unit of the computer where the information is encoded, given a meaning, and compared to the previously stored information (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

Four Pillars of the Information Processing Model

There are four pillars that underlay and support this model. These include rationality that embraces various aspects such as perception, coding, and storage of information within the mind of an individual. Secondly, there is the analysis of the stimuli. In this case, there is a change of the encrypted stimuli in an effort to facilitate the decision making process within the brain.

There are four sub-processes that form the alliance to enable the brain come to a conclusion concerning the encoded information it receives and stores. These four include encoding, strategization, generalization, and automatization (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

Thirdly, there is the situational modification where an individual uses experience by a collection of memories that are stored to control a situation of the same manner in the future. Lastly, there is the obstacle evaluation that enhances the maintenance of the subject’s development level.

The obstacle at hand is always taken into consideration when evaluating the subject’s intellectual, problem solving, and cognitive acumen. There are times when misleading information can confuse the subject. Thus, the subject may not find it easy to solve issues at hand (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

The Information Processing System

The information progression includes three elements. The first aspect is the sensory register. The second one is the short-term memory. The last element of the information process is the long term memory. The sensory system has a sensory store. This is where information is received and stored temporarily. The information is held in the sensory register for a long time to allow unconscious processes to operate on the traces of the information.

There is the short-term working memory, which is also called the center of the unconscious thought. This is usually equated to the analogous to the central processing unit of the computer. This is where information from the long term memory and the environment are merged to solve the problem. Nevertheless, this memory has a limited capacity to hold information. This explains why human beings cannot solve many problems at the same time.

According to the information processing perspective, the visual or verbal information working memory increases as children grow up until age 15 years. This leads to higher performance in fluid intelligence tests. Notably, the brain’s maturation process among children can lead to enhanced processing. The person’s ability to master numerous items in this memory at once is normally improved by this faster processing speed in the working memory (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

The long-term memory stores the information that involves the representations according to the knowledge of that person. This information remains dormant until when it is required to be utilized to solve a problem. This memory consists of explicit and implicit memory systems.

For children, they posses the implicit long-term memory that they cannot account for hence affecting their behavior. Explicit memory can be divided into two. This includes the semantic and episodic memories. Children can actualize semantic memories quickly hence enabling them to grasp vocabulary at a faster speed. On the other hand, episodic memories come up at slow speed.

Many psychologists believe that the formulation of episodic memories in children increases during the child’s life from one stage to another. Before the development of this theory, psychologists had problems in defining intelligence. According to information processing, intelligence is defined as the ability to process the cognitive information from the internal and external stimuli and come up with the desired answer or solution according to the information stored in the long-term memory.

Lastly, information processing theory uses both the elements of qualitative and quantitative development. Under qualitative development, there are aspects of new plans of information to be stored and later released for future use, enhancement of abilities such as the representation of concepts by the use of language, and obtaining rules that aid in problem solving.

The quantitative development aspect holds that advancement in the level of the knowledge acquired is dependent on one’s ability to recall items from the working memory (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

Constructivism is a learning theory and an approach to teaching that emphasize on how people denote meaning of the world through a chain of constructs that are self-developed. According to Glaserfeld (1989), constructivism is “a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and Cybernetics” (162). In this case, it is a learning process that is based on providing the learners with practical experience.

Hickman, Neubert, and Reich (2009) observed “constructivists do not look for copies or mirrorings of an outer reality in the human mind” (40). However, humans are seen as people who observe things, participates and are agents that generate and transform the patterns that aid them in coming up with the realities that fit them.

The learner is self-directed, innovative, and creative. This education enables the learner to be creative and innovative through the steps of analyzing the situation and concept synthesis of experience acquired before to form new knowledge. For fifth grade science class, the educator’s work is to mentor the student during the problem solving process of hard problems. This can be achieved by the use of questions that enhance the knowledge that the learner and allow for the formulation of new knowledge (Lombardi, 2011).

For social constructivism, it recognizes the uniqueness and complexity of the learner. It is regarded as a critical aspect of the learning process. In this case, it encourages the learner to get the version of truth that is understandable. The instructors have to adapt and employ the role of being facilitators and not necessarily teachers. This is due to the tender age of the learners they deal with hence they have to help them in their own understanding of the content.

Problem Solving

Problem solving in psychology is the state of desire to arrive at a certain goal from a condition at hand. It is the initial stage that does not seem to be moving towards the goal. It requires complex logic to find a missing explanation of conditions so as to arrive at the goal. Problem solving refers to a cognitive process that is complex. It is an intelligent task that requires the regulation of essential skills. Problem solving occurs when, from a given present condition, one is moving to a desired objective or goal.

It may also refer to a process that is generated mentally, which has various aspects. This process involves the discovery, analysis, and establishment of solutions to problems. The uniqueness of the situation is critical in determining the manner in which a problem can be solved.

For students in the fifth grade class, the instructor is expected to help them learn through the simple steps of identification through observation about the issue at hand and use the knowledge to arrive at the desired goal. During teaching lessons, the instructor leads the students to the problems they cannot identify themselves due to their level of understanding. The teacher then helps the students to come up with the solutions through some well constructed guidelines (Eggen & Kauchak, 2012).

The guidelines include the simple steps that involve identifying the problem to help the students avoid identifying the wrong source of the problem. Strategies or plans on how the problem will be solved depend on the uniqueness of the situation and the preferences.

Before the solution can be arrived at, the available information is organized starting from the information that is known to the unknown. The resources to be employed are allocated, which can be money or time. The evaluation of the results is done to ascertain the validity of the solution.

Critical thinking is a reasonable and reflective thinking that is aimed at making a decision of what to believe or what to do (Ennis, 1987). According to Brookfield (2000), critical thinking is a vital learning component in most professions. Thus, it is included as part of the formal education process and is used as a progress evaluation tool for students in the university before they graduate.

This form of thinking makes goals clear. It also evaluates assumptions and tries to understand hidden values. Notably, examines the evidence and undertakes actions. It also calls for an assessment of the conclusions.

Core critical thinking includes observation, interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation and meta-cognition. It is all about one having the ability and willingness to evaluate his or her own thinking. In this case, one does not always have the relevant information, or may not discover other information hence critical thinking is necessary.

Students should be allowed to engage in reflective problem solving and do thoughtfully made decisions. In this case, the teacher will have to help students and make the judgement according to the context using the applicable methods or techniques for the judgement. This also includes the theories that are applicable to understanding the problem and solving the question at hand.

Strong critical thinking requires one to reflect on every idea that led to the decision that was or has to be made. Consequently, it is recommended that greater reflection and deliberation is critical to decision making. In this case, there will be a need to engage in solving problems that require critical thinking (Eggen & Kauchak, 2012).

There are mind habits that categorize people who strongly rely on critical thinking to have that inner desire to follow reason and evidence. However, this is for as long as they lead to a systematic approach to problem solving. Critical thinking is deemed pathetic once people have intellectual skills alone. In this case, the individuals lack rationality in the mind.

The two have to be intertwined for strong critical thinking that makes sense to the result. Therefore, that lack rationality can lead to wise thoughts. However, this can be unscrupulous, immoral, and idiosyncratic (Eggen & Kauchak, 2012).

In schooling, constructivism, problem solving, and critical thinking are beneficial to students and the community. The students are able to construct in their own minds the basic ideas, principles, and theories that are sensible according to the context. These ideas, principles, and theories are always formulated out of the ability to the student’s innovation and creativity and to think critically. This is the process of internalization.

There is the use of the ideas, principles and theories by the students to become relevant learners in their lives a process called application. As a good teacher, one should cultivate intellectual application of all these three aspects including constructivism, problem solving, and critical thinking at every stage of learning (Eggen & Kauchak, 2012). This is the initial stage in 5th grade class, and is meant to enhance the intellectual development of the students.

Brookfield, S. (2000). Contesting criticality: Epistemological and practical contradictions in critical reflection. In T. J. Sork, V. Chapman & R. St. Clair (Eds.), Proceedings of the 41st Annual Adult Education Research Conference (pp. 51-55). Vancouver: University of British Columbia.

Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2012). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms . Upper Saddle River, N.J: Peason.

Ennis, R.H. (1987). A Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Skills and Despositions . New York: Freeman.

Glaserfeld, E. (1989). Constructivism in education . Oxford, England: Pergamon.

Hickman, L.A., Neubert, S. and Reich, K. (2009). John Dewey between pragmatism and constructivism . New York: Fordham University Press.

Lombardi, S. M. (2011). Internet Activities for a Preschool Technology Education Program Guided by Caregivers . Raleigh, North Carolina: North Carolina State University.

Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

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IvyPanda. (2018, December 11). Information Processing Theory. https://ivypanda.com/essays/information-processing-theory/

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Information Processing Essay

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The fundamentals of cognitive psychology begin with the information processing system, so- named by George Miller (1956) in his information processing theory. This essay will outline the information processing system in relation to its concept and limited capacity. It will then go on to summarise and assess the breadth of psychological research into the degree to which humans can successfully divide their attention using relevant sources. Finally, the essay will conclude by explaining the detrimental effect of our information processing system’s limited capacity in a real-world context.

The information processing system is the hub of our cognition and attentional capabilities. It includes four stages: attending, encoding, storing and retrieving (Nilsson, 2013), which work concurrently with the memory process to recall required data. Our information processing system has a limited capacity due the high number of sensory stimuli in our surrounding environment. Because of this, we have to consciously choose what we want to focus our attention on. In order to successfully process and encode a certain thing in our surroundings, we must selectively attend. Selective attention also parallels with bottom-up processing, where information is “determined by input and... proceeds in sequential stages” (Colman, 2008, p. 101)

An example of how our information processing system can selectively attend to one specific thing comes from Cherry’s (1953) ‘Cocktail party syndrome.’ This effect refers to one’s ability to filter out all unwanted environmental inputs from our auditory attention and focus on the desired stimulus whilst performing a dichotic listening task. This conveys the extent to which we can subconsciously decipher one desired stimulus from another unfavourable stimulus. This idea is further supported by Broadbent (1958, p. 61), in his Filter Theory which “considering sequences... made it clear that the capacity [of the information

processing system] must be too small.” If we didn’t have this limited attentional capacity, our information processing system would attempt to encode all the sensory data around us, leaving the attentional system susceptible to sensory overload resulting in “dysfunctional consequences.” (Malhotra, 1982, p. 419)

However, our information processing system does allow us to somewhat attend to multiple tasks simultaneously. Empirical evidence supporting how a person can, to some extent, successfully divide attention is provided by the ‘Stroop effect’ phenomenon. Coined by Stroop (1935), his study involved participants naming the colour of which an incongruent ‘colour word’ is printed in. For example, the word ‘green’ may be printed in red ink and so the participant is expected to say “red.” Participants’ ability to attend to the word’s ink colour and the words semantic meaning, whilst deciphering which is the correct answer, provides evidence that we as humans can divide our attention between two tasks to an effective standard. The results of Stroop’s (1935) study showed that on average, participants performed poorer when dividing attention, taking 2 seconds longer to read words printed in incongruent coloured ink compared to reading the same words written in black. This thus shows that even though we are able to divide our attention to some extent, it is much more efficient and therefore advantageous to sequentially attend to stimuli and selectively focus to ensure retention.

Despite previous research that demonstrates dividing attention results in poorer performance, such as that mentioned above; there is later research that claims divided attention can be improved. A study by Bier, de Boysson and Belleville (2014) involved randomly assigning 42 older adults to one of three training groups – single, fixed or variable. Those in the single group practiced equations and visual detection in isolation. Those in the fixed condition

our limited processing capacity and our inability as humans to advantageously divide our attention.

Overall, there is some evidence to suggest that we as humans can successfully divide our attention. Firstly, Stroop’s original study (1935) proves the fact that we can simultaneously encode and comprehend two materials of differing qualities (colour and meaning) and then consciously choose the one we want. As well as this, Bier, Boysson and Belleville’s study (2014), published just under 80 years later, alternatively presents the view that humans can successfully divide attention after cognitive training. However, even though both studies can be said to support the success to which attention can be divided, they also reveal that training is needed, performance is much slower compared to when we just selectively attend, and that dividing attention can prove dangerous or even fatal. In light of this, evidence suggests that dividing attention is possible but may not be successful in terms of its efficiency and advantageousness.

Bier, B., de Boysson, C., & Belleville, S. (2014). Identifying training modalities to improve multitasking in older adults. Age (Dordrecht, Netherlands), 36 (4), 9688. Retrieved from link-springer-com.libproxy.ncl.ac/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11357- 014-9688-2

Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. London, UK: Pergamon Press.

Cherry, E. C. (1953). Some experiments on the recognition of speech, with one and two ears . The Journal of the acoustical society of America, 25, 5.

Colman, A. M. (2008). Oxford Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press, 101.

Malhotra, N. K. (1982). Information Load and Consumer Decision Making . Journal of Consumer Research, 8, 419-430.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-

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Information Processing Theory: Powerful Facts Exposed

Information Processing Theory is a foundational idea in cognitive psychology that describes the human mind as a complicated information-processing system similar to a computer. According to this idea, people use a variety of cognitive processes to encode, store, and retrieve information, which shapes their perceptions, thoughts, and behaviors.

At its foundation, Information Processing Theory stresses the active character of cognition, focusing on how people actively interpret and modify incoming information to construct meaning and make sense of their surroundings. This theory sheds light on how people gain knowledge, absorb information, and adapt to changing circumstances by delving into the basic mechanisms of perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving.

In this extensive study, we will delve into the complexities of Information Processing Theory and its practical applications in learning and cognition. We will investigate the inner workings of the human mind by unraveling the fundamental principles of cognitive psychology and deconstructing the core components of Information Processing Theory.

We will discover the systems that govern how people acquire, process, and retain information by investigating cognitive processes like as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving.

Furthermore, we will look at how Information Processing Theory influences educational practices, cognitive therapies, and real-world applications, providing readers with actionable insights to improve their cognitive functioning and learning capacity.

Table of Contents

Importance of understanding cognitive processes for learning.

Cognitive processes form the cornerstone of learning, impacting how people acquire, retain, and apply new information. Individuals can improve their cognitive capacities by studying cognitive psychology better.

Understanding cognitive processes enables individuals to better their study strategies, memory retention, and critical thinking abilities. Furthermore, it allows educators to create more effective instructional approaches and interventions that are personalized to individual learners’ requirements, resulting in a more conducive learning environment.

Understanding Cognitive Psychology

Introduction to cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, and decision-making. It tries to comprehend how these mechanisms function and interact to influence human behavior and cognition.

Key Concepts and Theories

Cognitive psychology spans a wide range of significant concepts and theories, including Information Processing Theory, Schema Theory , and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy . These theories offer frameworks for understanding how people perceive, interpret, and respond to information in their environment.

Role of Cognitive Processes in Daily Life

Cognitive processes shape our everyday lives, from interpreting sensory data to making complicated judgments. Understanding these processes allows people to acquire insights into their behavior and cognition, increasing self-awareness and promoting adaptive reactions to varied stimuli.

Related reading: Cognitive Triad: Unlock Growth with Essential Insights

Introduction to Information Processing Theory

What is information processing theory.

According to Information Processing Theory, the human mind processes saves, and retrieves information in much the same way as a machine would. According to this idea, cognitive processes are divided into three stages: encoding (inputting information), storage (retaining knowledge), and retrieval. Similar to how a computer receives, saves, and retrieves data, the human mind alters incoming stimuli via various cognitive processes.

This theory highlights the role of attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving in cognitive function. It argues that information is processed systematically, with each stage influencing the next, ultimately defining human cognition and behavior.

Historical Background and Development

Information Processing Theory arose in the mid-twentieth century when psychologists attempted to comprehend the basic mechanisms of human cognition. Influential figures such as George Miller noted for his work on the capacity of short-term memory, and Ulric Neisser, who coined the phrase “cognitive psychology,” helped shape this theory.

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon’s work on computer models of human problem-solving helped provide the groundwork for Information Processing Theory. Their research focused on the similarities between human cognition and computer processing, emphasizing the sequential character of cognitive functions.

Information Processing Theory has changed over time, from early models centered on memory processes to more complete theories that include attention, perception, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Importance in The Field of Psychology and Education

Information Processing Theory has far-reaching implications for psychology , education, and cognitive neuroscience . This theory informs educational practices, cognitive therapies, and technological breakthroughs by shedding light on the cognitive processes involved in learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

In education, material Processing Theory influences instructional design by stressing learning tactics such as chunking material, offering feedback, and encouraging active involvement. Understanding how people encode, store, and retrieve information allows educators to customize their teaching techniques to maximize learning outcomes.

Furthermore, Information Processing Theory supports cognitive therapies by identifying underlying processes of cognitive dysfunction and proposing strategies to improve cognitive function. Cognitive restructuring and attention training use this theoretical framework to address cognitive deficiencies linked with a variety of psychological diseases.

In cognitive neuroscience, Information Processing Theory provides a paradigm for investigating brain-behavioral interactions. Advances in neuroimaging techniques enable researchers to explore neural correlates of cognitive processes, revealing the brain bases of perception, memory, attention, and decision-making.

What are the 5 stages of information processing theory?

Attention: focusing cognitive resources.

Attention is a cognitive process that directs mental resources toward selected stimuli while disregarding others. It is important for perception, learning, and behavior.

Let’s take a closer look at attention in the table below:

Perception: Interpreting Sensory Data

Perception is the brain’s processing of sensory data to create a coherent knowledge of the environment. It is not a passive process, but rather an active one based on sensory inputs, prior experiences, and expectations.

Here are some important aspects to consider in the table below:

This is the process of converting sensory inputs into memory-compatible formats. Encoding can occur in a variety of ways, including visual, auditory, and semantic processing. Deep, meaningful processing improves information encoding and retention.

Once encoded, information is saved in memory for subsequent retrieval. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model suggests three primary storage systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Each system has varying capacities and durations, with long-term memory having nearly limitless capacity and duration.

Retrieval is the process of gaining access to previously stored information when necessary. It can be modified by a variety of factors, including encoding context, retrieval cues, and memory trace strength. Strategies such as rehearsal, elaboration, and mnemonic devices can help to improve retrieval performance.

Related Reading: Cognitive Evaluation Theory: How It Helps You

What are the Components of Information Processing Theory ?

Sensory memory, attention, short-term memory, long-term memory, and executive skills including cognitive control and metacognition are all interwoven components of information processing theory. These components work together to improve information processing and cognitive performance.

Sensory Memory

Some necessary information about sensory memory is given in the table below:

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Some necessary information about short-term memory (STM) is given in the table below:

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Some necessary information about long-term memory (LTM) is given in the table below:

Cognitive Control

This refers to the ability to control and direct cognitive processes to attain specified goals.

Metacognition

This entails reflecting on one’s thought processes and observing cognitive activities.

What are The Advantages of Information Processing Theory?

Educational implications of information processing theory.

information-processing approach, learners actively process information via a variety of mental processes such as attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval. This theory has an impact on teaching methods and curriculum design in educational contexts because it emphasizes the necessity of actively engaging learners, enabling deep information processing, and developing transferable skills that can be utilized in real-world circumstances.

Teachers, for example, may use active learning approaches such as group discussions, problem-solving activities, and hands-on experiments to encourage students to thoroughly analyze knowledge and find meaningful connections.

Curriculum designers can build learning experiences to encourage the transfer of information and skills to new contexts, allowing students to apply what they’ve learned in the classroom to real-world circumstances.

Cognitive Interventions

Cognitive therapies target cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and executive functioning skills to improve cognitive ability and quality of life. These interventions are especially beneficial to those with cognitive impairments, learning disabilities, or age-related cognitive decline.

Cognitive therapies may include cognitive training programs, which entail regular practice of tasks aimed at improving certain cognitive skills. For example, a memory training program may include activities to improve memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. Individuals may also adopt memory strategies, such as mnemonic devices or visualization techniques, to help them remember knowledge more effectively.

Attentional control exercises, such as mindfulness meditation or attention training tasks, are designed to help people focus their attention and filter out distractions. These techniques can be especially beneficial for people who have attention deficiencies or difficulty controlling their attention.

Examples of Information Processing Theory

Information-processing approach has applications in a variety of fields, including education, clinical psychology, and human-computer interaction design.

Adaptive learning systems in education use Information Processing Theory algorithms to personalize learning experiences for each learner. These technologies analyze students’ learning behaviors and modify the presentation of material to improve learning outcomes.

Cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) in clinical psychology is based on Information Processing Theory. CBT enables people to identify and address dysfunctional thought patterns, as well as create more effective coping techniques. CBT, which targets cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and perception, can help people overcome a variety of psychological illnesses, including anxiety and depression.

Human-computer interaction design ideas are influenced by cognitive psychology studies, such as information-processing approach. Designers strive to develop straightforward and easy-to-use interfaces while keeping users’ attentional restrictions, memory constraints, and information processing capacities in mind.

Maximizing Learning with Information Processing Theory

Strategies for Optimizing Information Processing

Strategies for optimizing information processing are given in the table below:

Enhancing Memory Retention and Recall

Strategies for enhancing memory retention and recall are given in the table below:

Improving Attentional Focus and Concentration

Strategies for improving attentional focus and concentration are given in the table below:

Tips for Applying Information Processing Theory

Implementing effective study techniques.

Here are some scientific and research based tips from Basic of Psychology for implementing effective study techniques in the table below:

Utilizing Cognitive Tools and Resources

Here are some scientific and research based tips from Basic of Psychology for utilizing cognitive tools and resources in the table below:

Creating Personalized Learning Plans

Here are some scientific and research based tips from Basic of Psychology for creating personalized learning plans in the table below:

What are The Limitations of Information Processing Theory?

Excludes emotion and creativity.

The significance of emotions and creativity in cognitive processes is often overlooked in information processing perspective, which is mainly based on a computerized paradigm. This constraint may result in an imperfect picture of human cognition, as emotions and creativity play key roles in decision-making and problem-solving.

Simplistic Model

Critics contend that information processing perspective oversimplifies human cognition by reducing it to a linear, step-by-step procedure similar to computer processes. Human mental processes are far more complicated and nuanced than those covered by information processing perspective. This oversimplification may result in an erroneous picture of how humans think and absorb information.

Neglects Individual Differences

Information processing model frequently overlooks individual variances in cognitive processes among persons. While the theory describes the general processes involved in information processing, it does not take into account how these processes may differ depending on personality, experience, and cognitive ability. Ignoring individual characteristics may limit the theory’s ability to explain variances in cognitive functioning among various individuals.

Limited Application

Information processing model may not properly account for the dynamic character of cognitive processes in everyday scenarios. While IPT provides a systematic framework for comprehending cognitive activities, it may not fully reflect the complexities of cognition in complex, dynamic settings. This weakness limits the theory’s application in situations when cognitive processes are impacted by several elements and variables.

 Conclusion

Throughout this thorough examination of Information processing model, we’ve revealed the complexities of human cognition and their practical implications for learning and behavior. Individuals can maximize their cognitive talents, improve their learning outcomes, and achieve their academic and professional goals by grasping the key components of Information Processing Theory and implementing evidence-based tactics guided by cognitive psychology.

I encourage readers to apply the knowledge learned from this essay to their learning activities. By incorporating Information Processing Theory into their study habits and daily lives, individuals can maximize their cognitive potential, enhance their learning efficiency, and gain a better grasp of the world around them.

For those interested in learning more about Information Processing Theory and its practical applications, I recommend reading scholarly periodicals, and textbooks, and taking online courses. Continued learning and application of evidence-based solutions informed by cognitive psychology can lead to a transforming journey of self-discovery, growth, and lifelong learning.

This substantial study provides readers with a thorough examination of Information Processing Theory and its practical consequences for learning and cognition. It provides readers with valuable insights and concrete solutions for optimizing their cognitive talents, improving their learning outcomes, and realizing their full potential.

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Information Processing Theory essay

Information processing theory represents is an empirically tested approach to the study of cognition and cognitive development, according to which human mind and processes occurring in it are likened to certain algorithms. However, unlike typical algorithms, where the main emphasis made upon input and output, scientists developing information processing theory make focus on the processes of cognitive development. Although information processing theory was initially developed by Atkinson and Shriffin in 1968, subsequent generations of psychologists and researchers revised and modernized it, adding new approaches and alternatives (Huitt, 2003).

From the contemporary perspective, information processing theory represents one of the most intrinsic and important parts of cognitive psychology. The empirical bedrock on which information processing theory rests comes largely from years of research on how animals and humans of different ages behave when confronted with simple problems that require choosing between two visual displays. One display is correct and the other incorrect; the problem calls on the solver to discover which is which. The information in these displays, as in real-life, contains both relevant and irrelevant elements.

The problems can be solved whether the information is processed actively or passively. Active information processing abstracts and selectively encodes the relevant information and ignores that which is, or appears to be, irrelevant to the solution of the problem (Cowan, 1995). Passive information processing nonselectively encodes all of the perceptible information, relevant and irrelevant alike, in parallel (Cowan, 1995). In a complementary manner, the problems permit solutions by means of automatic associative learning or by means of rational hypothesis testing.

When these problems were presented to animals they mostly tended to process the information in the displays nonselectively and to solve the problems in the automatic associative mode. When human adults were presented with the problems they typically abstracted the relevant information and solved the problems in the rational hypothesis-testing mode. How human children encoded the information and solved the problems depended on their age. The youngest children, like the infrahuman animals, mostly tended to encode the information nonselectively and to solve the problems in the associative mode (Cowan, 1995) .

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But between early childhood and young adulthood there was a gradual, systematic, quantitative increase in both the tendency to abstract the relevant from the irrelevant information and in the tendency to solve the problem by testing plausible hypotheses. Information processing theorists associate human cognitive processes with certain algorithms. In the middle of the past century the most prominent of the neobehaviorists, Hull produced a mathematical theory of learning intended to explain a variety of simple learning behaviors based on a series of explicit postulates from which testable deductions were derived (Kendler, 1995).

His theory began with noting that organic evolution provides the normal organism with receptor organs capable of responding to the important stimuli in its environment (S), motoric organs that can make the necessary responses (R), and a nervous system that connects these stimuli and responses (-) (Kendler, 1995, p. 73). Information processing theorists went further by breaking down the process of the human thinking processes and cognitive performance. When individual receives some stimuli through senses, his brain puts this information into the sensory store. Then the information is placed into short term memory.

In case the information is not encoded from short term memory to long term memory, it is abandoned. However, once in long term memory the information is ready for retrieval. Miller, one of the pioneers of information processing perspective indicated that it is important to understand some of the key assumptions of information processing approach, including the emphasis on, the role of the knowledge base in cognitive development; “the conceptualization of thinking as involving distinct processes executed over time, and the ways in which change in the system can occur” (qtd in Cowan, 1995, p.113).

It is evident that as children get older they are able to process more information and process it faster than younger children. Processing capacity is the amount of information a person can remember or think about ay one time. Researchers measure it by representing series of information very quickly and counting how many items a person can remember in exact order; these changes in processing capacity help explain age differences on many kinds of cognitive tasks (learned tasks).

As children mature and their capacity grows, they gain the ability to consider several sources of information at the same time, and their cognitive processing becomes more flexible and powerful. Because human brain processing information can recognize familiar tasks, it automatically applies correct path for a human to act, thus decreasing the working memory and allowing higher processing of information.

In information processing theory this process is called automaticity, an ability of a human to complete everyday talks with minimum interference of other simultaneous activities, which logically result in a reduction of brain activity and shifts in brain usage (Anderson et al, 1998). Therefore, throughout individual’s life, brain repeatedly recognizes learned tasks and processes the algorithm necessary to complete those tasks more effortlessly. Attention becomes more sustained and selective with age; children become better at focusing on just those aspects of a situation that are relevant to their goals.

Older children are also better at adapting attention to task requirements. Gains in cognitive inhibition, believed to be due to development of the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, are particularly marked in middle childhood. They lead to expansion of processing capacity and underlie children’s greater selectivity of attention. A major strength of the information-processing approach is its precision in breaking down cognition into separate elements so each can be studied thoroughly.

As a result, information processing has uncovered a variety of explicit mechanisms of cognitive change and has contributed greatly to the design of teaching techniques that advance children’s thinking (Huitt, 2003). Much of the cognitive development consists of developing strategies for reaching the maximum potential of our mental limited capacity. From the critical viewpoint, humans have to develop new strategies for learning, remembering, and processing information more efficiently so they can increase the capacity to assimilate new information and new problems.

Anderson M. et al. (1998). Implicit and Explicit Mental Processes, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998 Cowan N. (1995). Attention and Memory: An Integrated Framework, Oxford University Press Huitt, W. (2003). The information Processing Approach to Cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Available at <http://chiron. valdosta. edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc. html> Retrieved Aug 16, 2006 Kendler T. S. (1995). Levels of Cognitive Development, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995

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Information Processing Theory

Information processing theories explain how people work with or perform mental operations on information they have received. These operations include all mental activities that involve noticing, taking in, manipulating, storing, combining, or retrieving information. This approach to human development emphasizes the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, decision making, and reasoning. Basically, information processing  theory  attempts  to  explain  how  humans think. Prior to the evolution of information processing theory, the field of psychology was dominated by behaviorism, a school of thought in which emphasis was placed solely on externally observable behaviors. Because mental processes were not directly observable, they were not a concern among behaviorists. Cognitivists representing a contrasting theoretical school based on cognition, on the other hand, postulated that internal cognitive processes serve as the basis for understanding many human behaviors and that these cognitive processes could be understood by analyzing the ways in which people think. Consequently, in the late 1950s, cognitivists suggested  that  behaviorists’  explanations  of  behavior were inadequate because they did not account for human thought processes. As a result, an upsurge in theories resulted that detailed models of human thinking and problem solving. Cognitivist models typically placed an emphasis on serial, or step-by-step, processing of information and adopted the computer as a model of human cognitive activity.

Theories Of Information Processing

In 1956 George A. Miller was among the first to apply a step-by-step theory to information processing by relating it to the way that high-speed computers processed information. He proposed that, similar to a computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its form and content, stores and locates the information, and then generates output of some type. According to Miller’s theory, information processing in humans involves gathering and representing information (encoding), holding information (retention), and getting at the information when necessary (retrieval). In addition to comparing information processing of humans to that of computers, Miller made a significant contribution to the understanding of information processing with his concept of chunking as related to short-term memory. He proposed that individuals could only store five to nine chunks, or meaningful units, of information in their short-term memory. Anything from digits to words to people’s faces were considered to be chunks of information. The concept of chunking was one of Miller’s major contributions, because it became a basic element of later theories of memory.

A later development, the three-stage information processing model , is now perhaps the most accepted model among information processing theorists. This model was first developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968  (referred  to  as  the Atkinson-Shiffrin  model). This model was then modified by others, including Loftus and Loftus, producing various versions. Generally, this model proposes that there are three stages involved in memory: input or sensory registry, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory registry involves input from sight and sound and processing at this level occurs in 3 to 5 seconds. During the short-term memory stage, information is transferred to short-term memory, where it can remain for 15 to 20 seconds. Typically, five to nine chunks of information can be recalled from short-term memory. Short-term memory capacity can be increased by chunking information into manageable units or by rehearsing information until it is committed to memory. During the third and final stage, information for future reference is stored in long-term memory, which is thought to have an unlimited capacity.

In addition to the three stage information processing model, there are three more models that have been widely adopted. The first, levels of processing theory , is based on the work of Craik and Lockhart in 1972. The major premise behind this theory is that people use different levels of elaboration as they process information during the learning process. Elaboration involves taking simple information and applying meaning  to  it  in  a  way  that  increases  the  chance of remembering that information. Different levels of processing or elaboration can make it easier for an individual to retrieve a piece of information that is stored in memory.

The two remaining models have been labeled the parallel-distributed processing model and the connectionistic model . These models were proposed as alternatives to the three stage model. According to the parallel-distributed processing model, information is processed by several distinct parts of the memory system in a simultaneous fashion. This is different from the three stage model because it proposes a simultaneous process, as opposed to the step-by-step process proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.

The connectionistic model was proposed in 1986 by Rumelhart and McClelland. This model assumes that bits of information are stored in numerous locations throughout the brain in the form of networks or connections. According to this model, the more connections there are to a single concept or bit of information, the more likely that concept is to be remembered. For example, according to this theory and its supporting research, trying to find your keys after misplacing them can be difficult if you cannot remember where you were the last time you saw them. If you can remember where you were the last time you saw them and you can also remember at least three places you went after you last saw them, you may be more likely to find your keys.

Developmental Issues

Some information processing theorists suggest that children differ from adults primarily because they have had less experience. These theorists believe that, with proper training or education, children can learn to succeed at various cognitive tasks. Thus, exposure to the environment affects cognitive development. Other theorists believe that children’s natural maturation processes influence the complexity of their thinking. Therefore, as children grow older and naturally mature, they are able to perform cognitive tasks of increasing difficulty and complexity. Information processing theorists assume that development involves qualitative and quantitative changes. Examples of these changes have been seen in children’s performance in several domains. These include perception, memory, verbal comprehension, mathematical skills, problem solving, and reasoning.

With  regard  to  perception,  studies  have  shown that young children have trouble distinguishing between appearance and reality. That is, when asked to describe something, young children will describe the way it appears to them, rather than what is really in front of them. Memory has been found to be better in older children than in younger children. When learning new material, young children are likely to use very simple strategies, while older children employ more elaborative strategies to aid in memorizing information.

Verbal comprehension is the ability to comprehend words, sentences, paragraphs, and other forms of spoken information. Children’s verbal comprehension appears to increase with age. The ability of children to generate useful strategies that improve verbal comprehension also increases with age.

These findings indicate that, as humans get older, there is a trend for us to develop more sophisticated ways of acquiring, processing, and retaining information. Thus, information processing skills become more developed with age. This aspect of change implies that, when teaching children new things, it is important to consider where they are in the developmental process and to adjust teaching techniques so that they are compatible with children’s information processing capabilities.

Information Processing Research Methods

In the late 1980s, David Klahr characterized information processing research as falling along a continuum ranging from “soft-core” to “hard-core” approaches. Soft-core research involves describing a child’s processing of information as a flow diagram or in some way that is not as complex or formal as a computer  program.  Hard-core  approaches,  on  the other end of the spectrum, involve writing computer programs that imitate a child’s output as that child processes information. A program that successfully matches the child’s output is considered to be a theory of how the child’s mind operates.

The first computer simulation program used to understand information processing was developed by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This program, originally called the Logic Theorist and later termed the Gene ral Problem Solver , was essentially a theory of human problem solving stated in the form of a simulation program. This theory was tested by comparing the results of the computer simulation with human behavior in a given task.

The information processing approach has gained considerable popularity in recent years. Nevertheless, weaknesses in this approach have been noted. A primary weakness is that there is no guarantee that flow diagrams or computer programs that predict behavior actually represent the way human cognitive processes really work. There may be reason to believe that the differences between computers and the human mind far outweigh the similarities. Furthermore, because information processing studies are conducted in highly controlled laboratory settings, such findings may be unequal to results that would result from studying children in their natural environments.

References:

• Bransford, (1979). Human cognition: Learning, understanding and remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Gagne, , Yekovich, C., & Yekovich, F. (1993). The cognitive psychology of school learning. New York: HarperCollins.
• Huitt, W.  (2003).  The  information  processing  approacRetrieved from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
• Kearsley, (1994). Information processing theory: G. Miller.Retrieved from http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/miller.html
• McShane, (1991). Cognitive development: An informationprocessing approach. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
• Open Learning  Technology  Corporation  Limited.  (1996).Information-processing theory. Retrieved from http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/cp/04h.htm
• Sternberg, J. (1998). In search of the human mind. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.
• Stever, F.  B.  (1994).  The  psychological  development  of childr Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
• Wade, ,  &  Tavris,  C.  (1990).  Psychology.  New York: HarperCollins.