gender socialization assignment

Gender Socialization

Socialization is known as the process of inducting the individual into the social world. It is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as functioning members of their society. The term socialization refers to the process of interaction through which the growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values, and beliefs of the social group into which he has been born.

Gender socialization is the process of learning the social expectations and attitudes associated with one’s sex. Sociologists explain through gender socialization why human males and females behave in different ways: they learn different social roles. For example, girls learn to do different household chores than boys; girls learn to bake and clean, and boys learn to mow lawns and take out the garbage.

Henslin contends that “an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles.” Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This “learning” happens by way of many different agents of socialization.

A parent plays a very significant role in gender socialization. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender-related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.

As parents are present in a child’s life from the beginning, their influence in a child’s early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender-related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.

The main agents of gender socialization are parents, peer, siblings, school, society, and religion. For very young children parents and family play the central role in shaping gender socialization. They determine how the family interacts with a boy as well as the types of toys and clothes that the baby is given.

Gender identity is established by age of two years. Its central component is the notion – I am male or I am female. Sigmund Freud theorized that identification and imitation of same-sex parents lead to effective gender –identity formation. In the latency period males and females tend to aggregate themselves from each other. This may be considered part of the socialization process and further solidifies gender identification and role-specific behavior. Schools and families continue to influence gender socialization throughout adolescence. During adolescence, peer influence becomes the strongest agent of gender socialization as teens form together in small social groups to facilitate their transition into adulthood and into the larger society. The socializing effects of the mass media also become powerful in formative years.

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Gender socialization and roles

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Gender socialization and roles, by sophia tutorial.

In this lesson, you will be introduced to sociological understandings of gender roles and where they come from. You will learn about how a person's gender is shaped through socialization and the impact gender can have in the workplace. By examining these concepts, you will further strengthen your self and social awareness skill. Specifically, this lesson will cover: 1. Gender Roles 2. Agents of Gender Socialization a. Family b. Schools c. Peer Groups d. Mass Media 3. Gender and Adults a. Gender and Work b. Family and Work

1. Gender Roles

Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles. The term gender role refers to society9s concept of how people are expected to look and behave based on societally created norms for masculinity and femininity. Children acquire these roles through socialization , a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.

Toys, books, and clothing all differentiate genders explicitly. Media representations of gender further reinforce these messages such that the learning of one9s roles is very natural and casual. Even phrases like <big boys don't cry= or <sugar and spice and everything nice= directly tell us how to behave.

Like adults, children become agents who actively facilitate and apply normative gender expectations to those around them. When children do not conform to the appropriate gender role, they may face negative sanctions such as being criticized or marginalized by their peers. Though many of these sanctions are informal, they can be quite severe.

WHAT'S COVERED

ôEXAMPLE A boy who wishes to take ballet instead of karate class may be called names and face difficulty gaining acceptance from both male and female peer groups.

Boys, especially, are subject to intense ridicule and bullying for gender nonconformity.

One way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with <gender appropriate= toys (or same- gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available, because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior.

Charles Cooley9s concept of the looking-glass self applies to gender socialization because it is through this interactive, interpretive process with the social world that individuals develop a sense of gender identity.

The pressure and expectation to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles continues throughout a person's life, whether that pressure is internal due to successful socialization or external due to ongoing socialization.

In American culture, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. One result of these associations is that men tend to outnumber women in power-related professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics, while women tend to outnumber men in care-related professions such as childcare, healthcare, and social work. This is not because all men necessarily prefer power-related jobs and all women prefer care-related jobs. Adherence to gender roles demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference.

When people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, they are said by sociologists to be doing gender . Whether we are expressing our masculinity or femininity, Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman argued in 1987, we are always <doing gender.= Thus, gender is something we do or perform, not something we are.

ó THINK ABOUT IT

The phrase <boys will be boys= is often used to justify behavior such as pushing, shoving, or other forms of aggression from young boys. The phrase implies that such behavior is unchangeable and something that is part of a boy9s nature. Aggressive behavior, when it does not inflict significant harm, is often accepted from boys and men because it is congruent with the cultural script for masculinity. How does this acceptance of aggression impact boys and men? How does it impact girls and women?

Gender, like race, is a social construction with very real consequences.

ý TERMS TO KNOW

Gender Role Society's concept of how people are expected to look and behave based on societally created norms for masculinity and femininity.

including preference for toys, play styles, discipline, chores, and personal achievements. As a result, boys tend to be particularly attuned to their father9s disapproval when engaging in an activity that might be considered feminine, like dancing or singing. Parental socialization and normative expectations also vary along lines of social class, race, and ethnicity.

ôEXAMPLE Some studies have shown that African American families are more likely than white Americans to model an egalitarian role structure for their children.

2b. Schools

The reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes continues once a child reaches school age. Until very recently, schools were rather explicit in their efforts to stratify boys and girls. The first step toward stratification was segregation. Girls were encouraged to take home economics or humanities courses and boys to take math and science.

Many colleges and universities began as men or women only. While many integrated in the mid 20th century, a smaller number of single-gender colleges are thriving to this day. One traditional criticism of single-gender schools is that the offerings and activities in a single-gender school heavily reinforce traditional gender stereotypes. Proponents of single-gender education note that the environment allows students to develop in relation to academia, rather than in relation to the opposite sex. What do you think?

Studies suggest that gender socialization in schools continues today, albeit less intentionally than in the past. Teachers may not even realize they are acting in ways that reproduce gender differentiated behavior patterns. But studies show that schools subtly convey messages to girls indicating that they are less intelligent or less important than boys.

ôEXAMPLE In a study of American teacher responses to male and female students, data indicated that teachers praised male students far more than female students. Teachers interrupted girls more often and gave boys more opportunities to expand on their ideas.

Further, in social as well as academic situations, teachers have traditionally treated boys and girls differently, reinforcing a sense of competition rather than collaboration. Boys are also permitted a greater degree of freedom to break rules or commit minor acts of deviance, whereas girls are expected to follow rules carefully and adopt an obedient role.

2c. Peer Groups

After family and school, the peer group is the most significant agent of socialization. Individuals learn how to conform in order to be included and the group bonding affirms the feeling of belonging. In interactions with peers, children first begin to divide themselves into in-groups, out-groups and reference groups. Early friendships and peer interactions are how people learn to form relationships with strangers, to get along with and adapt to others, and to rally as a group, as well as what it feels like to be different in new situations. Peer relationships play an important role in what Cooley called the looking-glass self, where we learn about ourselves by how others treat us and see us. Approved behavior is met with positive forms of reinforcement and negative reinforcement is turned on behaviors that are disliked. In learning to play together, children first play with others who are similar to them in interests. Over time, children who keep playing together become more similar in many ways - including gender. New interests get introduced to the fledgling group by the experiences of children in the peer group when they are outside of the group. New tendencies and trends are

spread through social ties within the peer group. Gender roles and expectations are built within the peer group, and an ideal type emerges.

Traditionally social scientists believed that peer groups did not become important until pre-adolescence and that the family was almost exclusively influential in small children. However, studies have shown that children as young as 3 or 4 can exhibit reference group behavior in interests, clothing and food, and develop close bonds with a group or even exhibit difficulty with acceptance by others.

2d. Mass Media

While children learn about gender roles and stereotypes through direct interaction with families, peer groups, and schools, mass media are also a powerful source of early information about gender expectations. Media communicate messages about gender through what they show and through what they don't show. Research indicates that in the ten top-grossing G-rated movies released between 1991 and 2013, nine out of ten characters were male. Even when they are present, women tend to have less significant roles and are often portrayed as wives or mothers. When women are given a lead role, it often falls into one of two extremes: a wholesome, saint-like figure or a malevolent, hypersexual figure. A 2017 report from Common Sense Media analyzed more than 150 articles, interviews, books, and other social-scientific research on gender stereotypes in movies and TV shows. The report found that gender stereotypes are not only common, but also incredibly effective at teaching children what society expects of boys and girls. These stereotypes infuse children and youth media, reaching kids at a point in their development when they're most receptive to media influence.

When a small child is just beginning to think of themself as a girl or a boy, they are watching children's shows and movies whose characters have an exaggerated masculine or feminine appearance, such as a superhero's big muscles or a princess's long hair and skirts.

ôEXAMPLE Even stories about anthropomorphized objects and animals are not immune: think of cartoons that indicate a female rabbit or robot by adding large eyelashes and an hourglass shape.

These gendered visual characteristics also are often associated with specific traits4for example, the superhero is strong and brave and the princess is timid and shy. Even when the princess is portrayed as strong and brave too, her storyline will include a romantic relationship almost all of the time.

One casual way that people sometimes evaluate representations of women in media is through the Bechdel test, named for the cartoonist Alison Bechdel. The test asks whether a piece of media includes at least two female characters with names who talk to each other about something other than a man. The test includes no other parameters about how the women are characterized and how much screen time they have, as it is meant to be just a baseline measurement of whether women are shown existing in a particular fictional world 4it is an intentionally low bar. Nevertheless, a 2018 survey by the BBC found that less than half of the films that have won the Academy Award for Best Picture would pass this test. But nearly every single film would pass a reverse test (including at least two men who talk to each other about something other than a woman). The paucity of female characters in film, from children's movies to award-winners, has a well-documented impact on the unconscious adoption of gender norms and expectations.

Television commercials and other forms of advertising also reinforce inequality and gender-based stereotypes. Women are almost exclusively present in ads promoting cooking, cleaning, or childcare-related products.

women are affected. Many women who work outside of the home still work in gendered fields and roles. For working class women, this means over-representation in caregiving jobs like nannying and home health aides, and under- representation in construction and agriculture. In the professions, women are over-represented as teachers while under-represented as school principals, and over-represented as nurses while under-represented as doctors and surgeons. At tech companies, women hold less than a quarter of software development roles, but the majority of administrative and HR roles. Firefighters, pilots, clergy, and film editors are all less than a quarter female.

What do male-dominated jobs and professions have in common? How do these attributes relate to the gender stereotypes in media and schools we discussed earlier?

Another unequal impact is workplace sexual harassment. Sexual harassment includes unwelcome advances in the form of gestures, words, or physical contact of a sexual nature. While anyone can experience sexual harassment from anyone, the vast majority of the time it is women who are sexually harassed by men, particularly in the workplace. In recent years, the #MeToo movement has brought greater attention to the ongoing prevalence of workplace sexual harassment, along with an uptick in consequences for harassers. But it will take significant cultural change over generations to truly end gender imbalance and inequality in the workplace.

In the next tutorial, we will look at how sociologists interpret the impact of gender stereotypes and gendered roles in the workplace, particularly in the form of unequal wages and promotions.

3b. Family and Work

Men are socialized to expect to leave the home to collect resources. Western society has historically looked down on men who stay home and raise children by assigning negative ideas about masculinity to participation in the domestic sphere. At work, too often, there is a professional pressure to not engage with the domestic sphere at home and a fear of sanction for taking time off to attend anything other than the occasional soccer game. Due to the realities of the executive gap and wage gap between the genders, it is also most often that the non-birthing parent is the breadwinner as well. When mothers re-enter the workforce, they are penalized due to a biological function. That function is no indicator of skill, intelligence, education and training or dedication to one9s vocation, but a woman's motives are called into question when discussions of raises and promotions are had. Though women, and other subordinate groups, are legally protected from discrimination in the workplace, people's attitudes are slowly changing about a woman9s place in the workplace. What is not changing as quickly though is the attitude and expectations about men who are fathers in the workplace and in society. A stay-at-home dad may experience role strain when he tries to straddle the chasm between his expected status as provider and his chosen role of homemaker.

Recently, authors have been writing about the <invisible load= of motherhood, in which a mother takes on a slate of responsibilities that aren't even seen as responsibilities by their partners or the world at large. Even as more women enter the workplace and begin to advance, they are still expected to be the home managers. Whether they are single or in a committed relationship, and even if they are earning an independent income, mothers do more. They are more often than not also responsible for the bulk of the domestic work, cleaning, cooking, arranging and attending doctor visits, meeting with teachers, arranging for weekend and summer activities, and more. In trying to respond to the demands of the many different statuses they inhabit, they

experience role conflict both at work and in the home. Men who <help out= or <babysit= their own children are praised for being modern when it is an issue of equity between what are otherwise equally capable and contributing human beings.

Children become aware of gender roles in their earliest years, and they come to understand and perform these roles through socialization, which occurs through four major agents: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. Socialization into narrowly prescribed gender roles results in the stratification of men and women.

û TERM TO KNOW

Sexual Harassment Unwelcome advances in the form of gestures, words, or physical contact of a sexual nature.

In this lesson, you were introduced to sociological ideas about gender roles, including the impact of agents of gender socialization such as family, schools, peer groups and mass media. You also saw the complexities of gender and adults, including the interplay of ' gender and work and family and work. Finally, you continued to strengthen your self and social awareness skill by examining gender norms and how they are developed.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM LUMEN LEARNING'S INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY and OpenStax's Introduction to Sociology 2e (Access for free at openstax/books/introduction- sociology-2e/pages/1-introduction-to-sociology )

Doing Gender The sociological idea that gender is something we do or perform, not something we are.

Socialization A process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.

TERMS TO KNOW

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Course : Introduction to Sociology (SOC 101)

University : strayer university.

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Gender Socialization: Examples, Agents & Impact

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

Gender socialization is the process through which individuals learn the behaviors, expectations, and roles associated with their assigned gender within a society. Parents dressing their baby girl in pink and buying her dolls, while dressing their baby boy in blue and buying him toy trucks is an example of gender socialization.

What is Gender Socialization?

• Gender socialization is the process through which a culture’s gender-related rules, norms, and expectations are learnt.
• This process often begins from a very early age for most people. It is thought that children are aware of their gender by the time they are 3 years old, long before they come to recognize any other type of group they may belong to (Stockard, 2006).
• In gender socialization, it is important to distinguish between sex and gender. When referring to anatomical or reproductive differences between men and women, many social scientists use the term sex (Kretchmar, 2011). When referring to gender, this is a social construct which is believed to exist on a continuum and involves ideas about masculinity and femininity.
• The central idea of gender socialization is that societies have their own ideas of what gender is. People and cultures throughout the world recognize that there are different gender groups and they have assigned roles and responsibilities.
• Through gender socialization, people develop their own beliefs about gender and ultimately form their own gender identity. People may not be consciously aware of the gender norm decisions that they make. Gender roles and norms are often built into the script of what a man/woman should do or be.

Examples of Gender Socialization

An example of gender socialization is how toys are gendered, being marketed towards boys and girls. In many toy stores, there are often segregated ‘boy toys’ and ‘girl toys.’

The toys for boys may often be blue and come in the form of action figures, toy cars, and building blocks, whereas the toys for girls are often pink and come in the form of baby dolls, dress-up games, and toy cooking and cleaning sets.

The types of toys and activities are thought to reinforce what genders should do. For instance, the toys advertised to boys reinforce that to be male involves being adventurous, strong, and logic driven.

The toys advertised to girls reinforce that to be female means to be maternal, physically attractive, and to manage household tasks.

The advertising for these toys is also usually targeted at specific genders. The boxes for ‘girl toys’ for instance may be various shades of pink and display a young girl playing with the toy on the packaging.

Thus, if a girl sees this, she will likely understand that this toy is targeted for her, rather than packaging which is blue and displays a young boy playing with the toy.

Agents of Gender Socialization

We normally refer to the people responsible for our socialisation as agents of socialisation and, by extension, we can also talk about agencies of socialisation (such as our family, the education system, the media and so forth).

Gender socialization is a form of primary socialization which is the process by which children and infants learn the norms and behaviors associated with their gender. It is thought to occur within the family, peer groups, mass media and school curriculum (Bhattacharjee, 2021).

Parent socialization

Parents are often the first socialization of gender that children experience.

Gender socialization can often begin as soon as parents find out whether they are expecting a boy or a girl. Before the child is born, they may begin painting the baby’s room a certain color and buy specific clothing which is ‘appropriate’ for their child’s gender.

The language that parents use around their child can also reflect gender socialization. Girls may be referred to as ‘pretty’ or ‘delicate’, whereas boys may be described as ‘strong’ and ‘boisterous.’ Children learn from this language how they should be according to their gender.

Often there are different expectations for children depending on their gender. Girls may be expected to help out their mother with cooking, shopping, and cleaning activities. Boys may be expected to have high job aspirations, engage in sports, and help their father with fixing things.

Children tend to be especially attentive to same-gender models (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Therefore, when children observe their same-sex parent exhibit specific behaviors or engaging in activities which differ from other genders, the child is more likely to exhibit the same behaviors.

The way that parents behave with their child may differ depending on the child’s gender. Girls may be encouraged to play and behave in a polite and quiet manner, whereas boys may be encouraged to play louder and rougher.

Even if parents try not to reinforce gender norms, if they have their own gendered socialization from when they were younger, these parents may be inadvertently reinforcing this onto their children.

Peer socialization

Children can also be socialized by their peers in different ways, according to their gender.

It is thought that by the time children reach the age of three, they often prefer playing with other children of the same gender (Wharton, 2005).

This is often found across a variety of cultures and continues until adolescence. They often prefer to play with peers who share similar interests and thus are more likely to be socialized by peers of the same gender.

An explanation for gender-segregated play is that boys and girls play very differently and seek out others whose play style is similar (Stockard, 2006).

Girls often form intimate friendships with a small number of other girls and they take turns speaking and expressing agreement. Boys often play in larger groups, engage in rougher activities, and use interruptions and boasts.

When spending time with peers, boys and girls learn what is ‘appropriate’ for their gender. They may discuss with each other what boys and girls should do.

Peers can ‘punish’ each other for engaging in activities that do not conform to their gender. Girls seem to face less pressure than boys to conform to gender norms than boys and are less likely to receive negative attention for participating in ‘cross-gender’ activities and games (Wharton, 2005).

School socialization

Teachers and other educators may place expectations on children based on their gender.

They could do this by labeling and organizing students in group activities or creating different activities for boys and girls. As with parents, teachers may use gendered language when speaking to and about boys and girls.

Schools may encourage boys to engage in science or mathematics whereas they may be more forgiving if girls are not succeeding in these subjects.

Teachers may also discipline students in different ways depending on their gender, which may reinforce children’s beliefs and assumptions.

Media socialization

Gender socialization through media can include through movies, television, and literature. The media can reinforce gender stereotypes so that children have ideas about what it means to be a boy or a girl.

In a lot of movies and TV, men can often be seen as the heroes and going on adventures. In comparison, women are usually outnumbered by the number of male characters, are often portrayed as being physically attractive, and are frequently introduced as the love interest for the male characters.

Female characters are often seen as passive characters who need to be rescued by men and dressed in a way which appeals to the male gaze.

Studies show that children who watch a lot of TV tend to have more sex-stereotypical views of men and women and that this influences their choice of toys, career aspirations, and self-esteem (Burn, 1996).

While the media is beginning to portray males and females in non-stereotypical ways, a lot of older media shows them in traditionally gender-appropriate ways.

For instance, women are shown doing housework or as being stay-at-home mothers, whereas men are shown engaging in a wider variety of activities.

Theories to Explain Gender Socialization

Social learning theory.

Social learning theory is most closely associated with the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory relates to the behaviorist approach which defines learning in terms of stimulus and response.

Social learning theory explains that gender socialization comes as a result of children being reinforced, both positively and negatively, for gender appropriate and inappropriate behavior (Wharton, 2005).

For example, if a boy plays with a ‘gender appropriate’ toy such as a football, he may receive positive reinforcement from his father. Whereas, if the boy plays with a ‘gender inappropriate’ toy such as a doll, he may be ignored or receive negative attention from his father.

According to this theory, children learn what is appropriate from noticing the behavior of their same-sex parent. A young girl may learn what it means to be female by observing her mother, whereas a boy learns what it means to be male by observing his father.

Social learning theory can be discredited by research which has shown that parents who exhibit sex stereotypical behaviors are not more likely than other parents to have children who exhibit sex stereotypical behaviors (Stockard, 2006).

Likewise, children are not thought to be passive learners as social learning theory makes them out to be. Instead, they are more actively engaged in their socialization than the theory suggests (Wharton, 2005).

Gender codes

Gender codes are hidden, unspoken assumptions about the proper roles of men and women which are transmitted through the socialization process and are negotiated by each generation. Gender codes are not uniform but vary with location.

Traditional gender codes tend to be stronger in the working class than the middle class, but all people have access to both conservative and radical gender codes and negotiate their way through to their own balance.

Cognitive development theory

Cognitive development theories for gender socialization build on the research of psychologist Jean Piaget.

These theories emphasize how the socialization process is developmental in nature. It also argues that children have an active role to play in the development of their gender identity (Stockard, 2006).

Psychologists Lawrence Kohlberg was one of the first to apply cognitive development theories to gender identity. He argued that ‘children’s views of appropriate gender roles… change as they grow older, reflecting their changing cognitive development’.

It is thought that younger children have the most rigid definitions of gender and are more likely to punish others for violating gender norms. As they get older and gain more cognitive flexibility, gender stereotypes and gender roles become more flexible for them.

Kohlberg believed that once children develop gender constancy – the recognition that their gender is stable and unchanging – they become more motivated to demonstrate gender appropriate behavior (Wharton, 2005).

Cognitive development theories expand on social learning theory as they acknowledge that children play an active role in the socialization process and suggest that ideas about gender change and develop over time.

However, the fact that children can demonstrate gendered behavior as young as two or three years old, long before gender constancy, discredits Kohlberg’s theory (Martin & Ruble, 2004).

Gender schema theory

Gender schema theory was introduced by psychologist Sandra Bem in 1981 who asserted that children learn about gender roles from the culture in which they live. According to Bem, in cultures where differences between genders are emphasized, children learn to use gender as a way to process information about the world.

Gender schemas are thought to help children organize information and maintain a sense of consistency and predictability (Stockard, 2006). These schemas tend to be polarized so children come to understand what they believe is acceptable and appropriate for different genders.

Gender schemas provide an efficient way to hold new information and make new situations more predictable. Children develop more elaborate gender schemas as they develop their gender identity and their understanding of gender roles.

This theory suggests that the gender schemas are internalized in a way that males and masculinity are the norm and are more highly valued than females and femininity (Wharton. 2005).

A limitation of gender schema theory is the issue of individual differences. The theory does not account for why children with much of the same environmental influences respond differently to gender appropriate behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory

The psychoanalytic theory of gender socialization is different from other theories as it is not a learning theory. Founded by Sigmund Freud , its application to gender socialization was outlined in the 1970s by Nancy Chodorow.

The theory suggests that some aspects of gender identity result from unconscious psychological processes and not from conscious processes such as modeling or schemas.

A key factor of gender socialization according to psychoanalytic theory is the role of the mother as the primary caregiver. Chodorow argues that children’s first identification is with the feminine since they spend more time with their mothers early in life.

Eventually, children need to develop a sense of themselves and their own gender identity. For girls, this process is easier since they have already identified with the mother. For boys, however, they must first reject their feminine identification and develop masculinity.

This masculinity is defined as being ‘not feminine’. During this process, boys also learn to often devalue femininity.

Criticisms of psychoanalytic theory for gender socialization are that the theory is hard to empirically verify. It also reinforces gender stereotypes, places too much emphasis on the unconscious, and does not explain how children who were not raised by mothers develop their gender identity.

How Does Gender Socialization Affect Society?

Women are devalued.

In many societies, tasks and behaviors that are associated with femininity and being female are often devalued.

Women often complete more unpaid labor such as housework and childcare since this is seen as a feminine role and is not appreciated by being paid.

Inequalities in the workplace

Since women are often devalued, many employers may have the gender bias that women will be weaker workers, especially if they have extra labor to do at home.

Women can still experience a wage gap for completing the same work as men. Women-dominated jobs such as those in healthcare are often underpaid in comparison to male-dominated roles.

Women who have children also find they may experience a ‘penalty’ in the workforce and are not afforded the same opportunities as men who have children.

Negative attitudes about different genders

Children often favor their own gender in their attitudes and show gender discriminatory behaviors to other genders.

Gender segregated behavior may be supported by adults and may become a problem when children need to be able to function in gender-integrated settings such as school.

Children may find that they are not able to effectively relate with other genders which can further separate them and enhance differences.

Both boys and girls tend to associate positive characteristics with their own gender. However, after the age of 6, it is found that many girls stop showing this pattern and mostly consider that something that requires a lot of intelligence should preferably be done by a male (Bian et al., 2017).

Thus, girls can often develop negative feelings and attitudes towards their own gender and their own abilities.

Moreover, suppose society has very strict ideas about gender. In that case, this can negatively affect individuals who identify as non-binary, transgender, or anyone who does not subscribe to their assigned gender at birth. It can be hard for these individuals to be their true selves in a society that sees gender as being on a strict binary.

Limitations for men

Gender socialization is limited to both men and women in society. Boys and men can experience gender role conflict and pressure to succeed and dominate in their careers. They may feel like a failure if this is not what they want to or cannot do.

Men and boys may also intentionally avoid expressions of affection with their peers, believing that anger is the only appropriate expression of emotion for them. They often view more vulnerable emotions and crying as being feminine and would not be comfortable displaying these in front of others.

If a boy were to express typically ‘feminine’ traits, they would be at risk of being bullied, so they learn not to display these traits.

Likewise, if men are pushing down their vulnerable emotions, this can eventually damage their mental health and they could be less likely to reach out for help if they were struggling.

Finally, if men are socialized into being more aggressive, they may be more likely to commit crimes and specifically display acts of violence against women.

Frequently Asked Questions

How does gender socialization relate to gender stereotypes.

Gender stereotyping is where a set of gender attributes, characteristics, or roles are ascribed to people by reason of their membership to their gender.

People are thought to be socialized to have gender stereotypes.

If society has specific ideas about what each gender should be, and these are socialized to children, this can lead to them having stereotypes about other genders or adhering to their own gender stereotypes.

Although gender stereotypes tend to become more flexible later in childhood with the development of cognitive flexibility, in many instances, they can persist throughout life and continue to influence behavior (Solbes-Canales et al., 2020).

Interestingly, gender stereotyping is less restrictive for female stereotypes than for male stereotypes, meaning that females are less scrutinized for not adhering to gender stereotypes, but males are.

How does gender socialization relate to sexism?

The persistence of traditional gender roles exacerbates gender inequalities, encourages rigid behaviors, and maintains unbalanced power relations within societies in favor of men (Marcus, 2018).

With society having the attitude that women are weaker or less competent than men at the same work, this can lead to discriminatory behavior towards women.

The roots of prejudices, discrimination, and violence against women can be traced back to widespread gender stereotypes, which come from gender socialization (McCarthy et al., 2018).

Is gender socialization important?

Gender socialization is thought to be important since it helps individuals to develop their gender identity – deeply held internal perception of one’s gender.

Being aware of gender socialization and gender roles means that individuals can choose what they most identify with and develop their own identities.

Can gender socialization occur throughout life?

Although a lot of gender socialization occurs during childhood, it is a lifelong process. The beliefs about gender that are acquired in childhood can affect people throughout their lives.

Many new ideas about gender can be learnt well into adulthood, meaning that new expectations can be learnt. Through gender socialization, people have shaped ideas about what they believe they can achieve.

For instance, a man may believe he is capable of being successful in his career compared to a woman who may think she will have less success due to being a woman.

Can gender socialization be tackled?

It can be useful to become more aware of how individuals have been socialized based on their assigned gender. In this way, people can consider whether they behave or make decisions based on how they have been socialized, or whether it is because it is their own choice.

Since there are a lot of issues with gender socialization, parents and educators can put things in place to ensure children are not restricted by their gender.

They can use gender neutral terms when speaking to the children, ensuring that boys and girls are being spoken to in similar ways.

Parents can encourage children to play with a wide range of toys and activities during early childhood and can help to create playful environments where children interact with a mix of genders.

Also, parents and teachers can discuss and challenge gender stereotypes with children and not put so much emphasis on gender differences. In this way, children should have an understanding that they do not need to be stuck in their traditional gender roles.

Bhattacharjee, N. (2021). Through the looking glass: Gender socialisation in a primary school. In Gender and Education in India A Reader (pp. 40-52). Routledge.

Bian, L., Leslie, S. J., & Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests.  Science, 355 (6323), 389-391.

Burn, S. M. (1996).  The social psychology of gender . McGraw-Hill.

Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation.  Psychological review, 106 (4), 676.

Kretchmar, J. (2011). Gender socialization. of Salem Press. Sociology reference guide. Gender roles & equality , 41-52.

Marcus, R. (2018). The norms factor: recent research on gender, social norms, and women”s economic empowerment.

Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. (2004). Children”s search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on gender development.  Current directions in psychological science, 13 (2), 67-70.

McCarthy, K. J., Mehta, R., & Haberland, N. A. (2018). Gender, power, and violence: A systematic review of measures and their association with male perpetration of IPV.  PloS one, 13 (11), e0207091.

Solbes-Canales, I., Valverde-Montesino, S., & Herranz-Hernández, P. (2020). Socialization of gender stereotypes related to attributes and professions among young Spanish school-aged children.  Frontiers in psychology, 11 , 609.

Stockard, J. (2006). Gender socialization. In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender  (pp. 215-227). Springer, Boston, MA.

Wharton, A. S. (2005).  The sociology of gender: An introduction to theory and research . John Wiley & Sons.

10 Gender Socialization Examples

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Gender socialization refers to the learning of socially approved behaviors, gender norms , values, and attitudes that have been associated with a biological sex.

Individuals observe and imitate what is modeled before them with regard to how the genders are supposed to act. Women are taught to behave according to idealized femininity and boys are socially rewarded for following hegemonic masculinity ideals.

Gender socialization starts in early childhood and occurs through the education system, in the family unit, through socialization with peers, enforced by people of authority, and learned from consuming mass media.

Here, we can see that gender is (at least in part) a social construct (Butler, 2002), whereas sex at birth is a biological fact (see also: social construction of gender ).

Gender Socialization Examples

• Toys : children learn their gender roles through play, with boys receiving toys like trucks and toy guys, while girls often receive dolls and toys that promote nurturing.
• Babies : even when a baby is first born, they are socialized based on gender. A baby girl may be told she’s beautiful, has pretty eyes, or is sweet. A baby boy, on the other hand, may be told he is big, that he is strong, and be speculated how successful he will be when he grows up (i.e. he is going to play in the NBA, look how big his feet are!).
• The family unit : boys are often granted more freedom and autonomy is encouraged , whereas girls are more ‘housebound’ in that domestic duties like cleaning and cooking are expected of them.
• Emotional expression and behavior: Girls who speak up are often seen as snarky or bossy while it’s considered normal for boys to try to be authoritative.
• Hobbies : a girl having an interest in karate rather than dance class goes against the socialization of girls don’t fight.
• Career paths : the genders are guided towards certain careers based on the socially agreed upon behaviors that men and women should take in their careers. For instance, a woman may be guided towards home economics (baking, cooking) and mathematics for a man (engineer, architect).
• Emotional responses : gender socialization is taking place when we collectively accept a crying female and are uncomfortable with a crying male. Similarly, speaking about feelings has become normalized to the degree of being a trope with women, where men who are guarded and withdrawn from their emotions is expected.
• Films & TV : women are rarely seen as a lead role in a movie or tv series, but when they are cast as such, are still confined to an agreed-upon person that fits the definition of female gender. Remakes that remove all men and replace the cast with all women also tend to show the characters operating within socialized gender roles that is acceptable to the audience.
• Advertising : products that are marketed to men use different tactics than those marketed towards women. For instance, cleaning supplies often have a female tone with female characters. Even the brand, Mr. Clean, is meant to appeal to women as he is perceived to be a “helper” with women to complete their chores with his ‘strength,’ a gender dynamic that women are accustomed to. 
• The phrase “ boys will be boys ” is a great example of gender socialization, whereby behaviours that may be perceived as unfavourable (pushing, hitting, shoving) are justified and communicated as “normal” forms of aggression for males. 

See Also: What is Race Socialization?

Case Studies

Even at a very young age, children are socialized to be interested in “gender-appropriate” toys.

A baby shower for a boy, for instance, may see picture books with trucks and dinosaurs, whereas a baby shower for a girl would likely be filled with pink toys and stuffed animals.

In addition to outside influence dictating which toys children “should” play with, parents will often give children positive feedback for playing with the “right toy” (i.e. commenting on how tough a dinosaur is when their son shows them his toy, but telling him a unicorn stuffed animal is not for him). This further socializes children to interact with the “right” toys for their gender.

When we think about hobbies and activities, there is likely a gender association happening due to the gender socialization that we’ve all been through.

For instance, knitting and book club hobbies have a feminine association, while woodwork and vehicle maintenance/restoring have a masculine association. When other genders participate in hobbies not associated with them, there is often pushback.

For example, if a girl wanted to take a karate class instead of participating in dance lessons, the likelihood of her being labeled a “tom boy” and being ostracized from her peer groups (both boys and girls) is high. This is because, in general terms, she would be defying socially agreed upon gender roles.

3. The family unit

Of the four major agents of socialization proposed by the functionalism theorist Murdock, family is at the core of how children learn to act within the confines of their defined gender.

In addition to external influences, the way children are raised contributes significantly to their gender socialization. For instance, sons are often given the ability to have more autonomy and independence at an earlier age, regardless if their female sister is older.

They are also more likely to be given fewer restrictions on their day-to-day operations and decisions: dating, clothing, curfew. Daughters, on the other hand, are more likely to have less freedom in choice of activity and behaviour, and have more expectations to perform domestic duties around the house (cleaning, cooking) as they are perceived to be more feminine.

4. Career paths

For many people, the conversation around career paths is brought up in middle school and high school. While many factors dictate the direction one will go in for their career, gender socialization plays a part in supporting this direction as well.

For instance, when given the opportunity to select an elective in high school, a girl may feel more pressured to take home economics as opposed to metalwork.

Although she may be interested in welding and working on cars, out of fear of judgment and segregation from her friends she may opt to take the path ‘expected of her’ although she does not feel the same interest about it. This behavior may result in her becoming a chef or a stay-at-home mother, instead of a mechanic or architect.

5. Film & TV

One of the major forms of entertainment, films, and TV are a common place to see gender socialization at play.

In this space, we are unconsciously taught how men and women should behave, seeing acceptable and unacceptable behaviors playing out and positive reinforcement or reprimanding taking place as it relates.

For example, while women are increasingly being given lead role opportunities in recent years, their personas still tend to fall into agreed-upon gender stereotypes . That is, they are either portrayed as wholesome, saint-figures, or as hypersexual beings.

As well, recent movie remakes with an all-cast cast, while the intention has been good, has unfortunately served to enforce gender socialization as the characters still fall within the confined spaces of agreed female behaviours.

Related: Are there Really 81 Different Genders?

Gender is considered by most sociologists to be a cultural construct – we learn about how our culture defines femininity and masculinity as we group up. Theories like gender schema theory explain how gender is constructed through both observation and experience.

Although it may initially be perceived as harmless to buy into gender socialization practices, there are many potentially negative outcomes associated with rigid gender socialization, including the perpetuation of stereotypes that result in people being treated negatively based on their gender.

That may result in unequal pay in the workplace, mental health issues, and physically harmful behavior within relationships. In order to combat this issue, becoming more aware of how individuals have been socialized based on their gender may allow for a change in behavior towards others, more empathy and compassion, and less prejudice and discrimination.

Butler, J. (2002).  Gender trouble . Cambridge: Routledge.

Carter, M. J. (2014). Gender socialization and identity theory.  Social sciences ,  3 (2), 242-263.

Cranny-Francis, A., Waring, W., Stavropoulos, P., & Kirkby, J. (2017).  Gender studies: Terms and debates . New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Fagot, B., Rodgers, C., & Leinbach, M. D. (2012). Theories of gender socialization. In  The developmental social psychology of gender  (pp. 79-104). London: Psychology Press.

Murdock, G.P. (1949) Social structure . New York: The Macmillan Company.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
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Gender: Gender Socialization

• Definitions
• Social Constructs

Gender Socialization

• Gender Fluidity
• Gender Differences
• Traditional Gender Stereotypes
• Woman as Property
• Biblical Womanhood
• The Church and Gender
• Economic Inequality
• How to Get Help

“Gender socialization is thus the process of educating and instructing males and females as to the norms, behaviors, values, and beliefs of group membership” ( LumenLearning.org ). This page addresses the topic of gender socialization and provides resources and varying perspectives on the ideas. The material provided is intended for academic research and discussion. 

“Even if you are not familiar with the concept of “gender socialization”, it is most likely that you have been influenced by it and in turn passed on your own beliefs about what constitutes gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviour to others. Gender socialization begins at birth, intensifies during adolescence and contributes to gender inequalities in education, employment, income, empowerment, and other significant outcomes of well-being during adolescence and later in life” ( Unicef.org )

“When parents have a new baby, the first question they typically ask is whether they have a girl or a boy. Children’s gender assignment becomes a powerful social identity that shapes children’s lives. During early childhood, girls and boys spend much of their time in the home with their families and look to parents and older siblings for guidance. Parents provide children with their first lessons about gender. Possible ways that parents might influence children’s gender development include role modeling and encouraging different behaviors and activities in sons and daughters” ( www.child-encyclopedia.com ).

“With the popularization of social constructionist theories of gender roles, it is paramount that one recognize that all assertions about gender roles are culturally and historically contingent. This means that what might be true of gender roles in the United States for one cultural group likely is not true for another cultural group. Similarly, gender roles in the United States have changed drastically over time. There is no such thing as a universal, generalizable statement about gender roles” ( LumenLearning.com )

• Gender and Social Role Theory Gender socialization is the process by which males and females are informed about the norms and behaviors associated with their sex.
• Parents’ Socialization of Gender in Children When parents have a new baby, the first question they typically ask is whether they have a girl or a boy. Children’s gender assignment becomes a powerful social identity that shapes children’s lives. During early childhood, girls and boys spend much of their time in the home with their families and look to parents and older siblings for guidance. Parents provide children with their first lessons about gender. Possible ways that parents might influence children’s gender development include role modeling and encouraging different behaviours and activities in sons and daughters.
• What is gender socialization and why does it matter? Even if you are not familiar with the concept of “gender socialization”, it is most likely that you have been influenced by it and in turn passed on your own beliefs about what constitutes gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviour to others. Gender socialization begins at birth, intensifies during adolescence and contributes to gender inequalities in education, employment, income, empowerment, and other significant outcomes of well-being during adolescence and later in life, argues a recently published discussion paper by the UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti and the International Centre for Research on Women.
• Gender Socialization: Credo Reference A Credo Reference landing page on gender socialization. This page includes links to reference works, journal articles, and a mind map.

Girl Toys Vs. Boy Toys

The Experiment: Are you sure you don't gender-stereotype children in the toys you choose for them?

Perspectives

She/He/They/Them

She/he/they/them. Why do we use gender pronouns? And why do some people wish to be referred to as "they"? What is gender identity all about? Students will learn to understand these terms and the reasons behind them. They will also learn how to deal with questions they may have about gender identity.

The Psychology of Gender, Second Edition

To what extent does gender influence our behavior, thoughts, and feelings? How do "nature" and "nurture" interact to shape our identities as female or male? And what are the effects of gender on the ways we are perceived and treated by others? The second edition of this important text and reference confronts the central questions pertaining to gender differences and similarities across the lifespan. Rather than focusing on a particular viewpoint, the volume is carefully designed to foster comparison among different lines of psychological research and provide a broad survey of cutting-edge work in the field.

Psychology of Gender Identity

Gender encompasses biological sex but extends beyond it to the socially prescribed roles deemed appropriate for each sex by the culture in which we live. The gender roles we each carry out are highly individualistic, built on our biological and physical traits, appearance and personality, life experiences such as childhood, career and education, and history of sexual and romantic interactions. Each element influences perceptions and expectations. Gender-related experiences influence and shape the ways we think about others and ourselves including self-image, behaviour, mood, social advancement and coping strategies. This book brings together leading international research devoted to this subject.

Can we raise children without gender?

With recent victories for the trans rights movement and more young people defining as something other than “male” or “female” than ever before, VICE host Amelia Abraham goes to Sweden - the world’s most forward thinking country when it comes to questioning gender - to find out what it’s like to grow up without the gender binary.

It’s all about culture or it’s about biology too?

Janet Reimer became the proud mother of identical twins, Bruce and Brian. However, when a routine circumcision on baby Bruce went horribly wrong, Janet and her husband made the agonizing decision to have Bruce undergo a radical treatment known as sex reassignment, changing their son into a girl. Here, look back on the story of Bruce (now David) Reimer, who was raised as Brenda until discovering the truth as a young teenager

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• Last Updated: Sep 25, 2024 2:42 PM
• URL: https://southern.libguides.com/gender

6.5 Gender Socialization Inside Family and Childhood

Gender socialization occurs through four major agents of socialization : family, schools, peer groups, and mass media. Each agent reinforces gender roles by creating and maintaining normative expectations for gender-specific behavior. Exposure also occurs through secondary agents such as religion and the workplace. Repeated exposure to these agents over time leads people into a false sense that they are acting out genders naturally rather than following a socially constructed role.

Family is the first and most important agent of socialization because it is the center of a child’s life. Parents, siblings, guardians, and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know through primary socialization. For example, families show children how to use objects such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, and bikes. They show children how to relate to others—some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers,” or “teachers” or “neighbors.” And they show children how the world works—what is “real” and what is “imagined.” As you are aware, from your own experience as a child or from your role in helping raise one, socialization includes teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas.

More specifically, sociologists examine how families enact gender socialization,  teaching their children the norms, roles, and scripts related to gender. For example, a child who grows up in a two-parent household with a mother who stays at home and a father who acts as the breadwinner may internalize these gender roles, regardless of whether or not the family is directly teaching them. Likewise, if parents buy dolls for their daughters and toy trucks for their sons, the children will learn to value different things.

There is considerable evidence that parents socialize biological males and females differently. Biological females are often given more grace to step outside their prescribed gender roles. However, biological males typically have greater privileges, such as being allowed more autonomy and independence at an earlier age. They may be given fewer restrictions on appropriate clothing, dating habits, or curfew. They are also often free from domestic duties such as cleaning, cooking, and other household tasks considered feminine. Biological female children are limited by their expectation to be passive and nurturing, generally obedient, and to assume domestic responsibilities.

Socialization based on gender is called gender role theory,  which is the idea that boys and girls learn the behavior and attitudes about performing one’s biologically assigned gender. Even when parents set gender equality as a goal, there may be underlying indications of inequality. Boys may be asked to take out the garbage or perform other tasks that require strength or toughness, while girls may be asked to fold laundry or perform duties that require neatness and care.

Sociologists recognize that race, ethnicity, social class, religion, education, and other societal factors also play an important role in socialization. BIPOC families, for instance, are more likely than White families to model an egalitarian gender role structure for their children (Staples and Boulin Johnson 2004).